Cuina 🌾 Turcului
Overview of sites and cultures Çatalhöyük Anatolia, Cucuteni 🏺 The Threshold of “civilization” Status & Cuina Turcului 🌾 The Origins of Agriculture 🐑
If we pay a little attention to details, we will understand the evolution of our ancestors’ lives in the Carpathian arc by embarking on an unforgettable multi-millennial journey. It is the journey toward maturity for each of us, the path to a profound understanding of our identity (Old Europe), whether we are discussing the notion of nationhood or delving deeper into the individual.
Brâncuși’s Endless Column
Our journey today begins on the Romanian bank of the Danube and takes us back approximately 5,000 years, simply by crossing the river from the archaeological site of Lepenski Vir, Serbia (6000 BC), to the Mehedinți lands at Cuina Turcului.
Here, we discover the oldest artistic expression of Homo sapiens a carving on bone featuring vertically overlapping rhombuses, positioning the rhombus as a sign of signs, leading to the triptych of immortality embodied in the message of Brâncuși’s Endless Column, with a sense of timelessness.
13000 B.C.
Mehedinți, a county in southwestern Romania, offers a glimpse into the distant past with its rich archaeological heritage. If we travel back 13,000 years in time, we’d be looking at a period during the Epipaleolithic, also known as the Mesolithic, a phase in prehistory that bridged the end of the last Ice Age and the beginning of the Neolithic. At this time, humans in the region were transitioning from purely hunter-gatherer societies to more complex ways of life that would later include farming. In Mehedinți, evidence of such early human activity can be found in several key archaeological sites.
Notable Highlights 🌾
The Cernica Cave: located near the Danube River, the Cernica Cave (or similar caves in the area) contains remnants from this time. It is believed to have been a shelter for hunter-gatherers, and evidence of their lifestyle can still be studied through the tools and artifacts left behind. Stone Tools and Artifacts: excavations in Mehedinți have uncovered a variety of tools from the Mesolithic period. These tools, including microliths (small, finely crafted stone tools), were used for hunting, fishing, and plant gathering.
Animal Remains: the Mesolithic inhabitants of Mehedinți likely hunted large game like deer and wild boar, along with smaller animals. Fishing was also a significant activity, given the region’s proximity to the Danube River.
Early Settlements: some archaeological findings suggest that settlements in the area were semi-permanent, with evidence of rudimentary shelters and evidence of fire use, pointing to an emerging trend toward more stable living conditions.
The Danube River
The river played a crucial role in the lives of these early humans. It served as both a water source and a route for travel and trade. The proximity to the river also meant a rich supply of fish and wildlife, which helped sustain the hunter-gatherer communities.
It is generally known that the great rivers that traverse continents have almost always played a role in the development of civilizations, since the earliest times. This phenomenon has been clearly demonstrated both in Egyptian civilization and in the civilizations of Mesopotamia, to cite just two well-known and indisputably conclusive examples. The entire Egyptian civilization – whose prehistoric origins date back at least 5,000 years before Christ – can only be explained and understood through the Nile Valley, without which the entire region would have been a desert and could not have played any role in the history of human civilizations.
The same can certainly be said about the civilizations of Mesopotamia: without the blessings of the Tigris and Euphrates, we would not have had the prehistoric civilizations of Susa and Ur – and we would not have had the historical civilizations either – generally much better known under the generic name of the Assyro-Babylonian civilization.
These examples can certainly be multiplied, but I don’t think this is the place to continue this list. However, it is precisely this observation of the role of rivers in the development of human civilizations over the millennia and centuries that may raise the question for anyone: for our country, traversed by the most significant river of the European continent, whether archaeological research has perhaps led to the same conclusion!
During this time, the climate was warming up after the last glacial period, providing a more hospitable environment for human life. People were developing new strategies for survival, relying more on natural resources and eventually starting to experiment with plant domestication and the early forms of agriculture.
Traveling back 13,000 years to Mehedinți would place us in a transitional moment of prehistory, where the remnants of hunter-gatherer societies are slowly being replaced by the earliest foundations of settled life. The archaeological sites in this region offer a fascinating window into how ancient communities adapted to changing environments and laid the groundwork for future developments in human civilization.
The Cuina Turcului discovery, Mehedinți
county: 13,000 years back in time 🌾
In 1967–1968, archaeologists Vasile Boroneanț and Alexandru Păunescu unearthed a horse phalanx engraved with vertically overlapping rhombuses at Cuina Turcului, in the Danube Gorge, Mehedinți County. Initial C-14 testing dated it to 10,000 years ago, while later analyses revised the age to 13,000 years.
Ion Pogorilovschi described this engraving as „the oldest symbolic representation known in our space,” calling it the sign of signs. He linked it to the rhomboid patterns of Brâncuși’s Endless Column and Romanian folk motifs. Pogorilovschi argued for the extraordinary continuity of this symbol, which appears in local textiles, wood carvings, and ceramics across millennia.
The Origins of Agriculture 🌾
We find ourselves in the era when prehistoric humans transitioned from hunting practices to agriculture, proto-urban communities, and eventually to art. We pause for a moment at the University of Edinburgh, where Professor Clive Bonsall demonstrates that the Pelasgians laid the foundation for the first human communities. More importantly for humanity, they established the foundations of agriculture, and only later did these first farmers of the world migrate further south to Anatolia.
A Criterion for 🌾
Rethinking History
The Salt Cellar of Europe 🌾 🐑 🏺
Romanian researcher Gabriel Gheorghe provides complementary insights about this geographic space, specifically its surface salt resources, without which life would not have been possible. In ancient times, salt was highly prized due to the difficulty of extraction and the challenges of transporting it over long distances to human settlements. In some regions, it was called „white gold”—in Africa, it was so valued that it served as currency.
Salt in Stories and Rituals
The Bible contains many references to salt. In the Old Testament, Mosaic law required salt to be added to animals offered in ritual sacrifices. In the New Testament (Gospel of Matthew), Jesus says: Matthew 5:13, „You are the salt of the earth. But if the salt loses its saltiness, how can it be made salty again? It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled underfoot.”
In the History of Transylvania, an anonymous compendium from the Vatican Library, a Latin manuscript spanning pages 204–253 states: „The Principality is happier and more fertile than any other… life here has always been exceptionally easy.”
Similar accounts are reported by numerous other eyewitnesses: Paul Strassburg (1632), Evlia Celebi, Marsigli, Petrus and Paulo Manutius (1596), Johann Filstich (1728), and many others. Erasmus H.S. von Weismantel (1688–1749) wrote: „This country has the most wonderful and fertile soil. With little effort, it yields the most beautiful and best grains, vegetables, and foods.”
Over 300 Salt Massifs
Romania is the most favorably endowed place on Earth for both the quantity and quality of salt, particularly with massifs of surface salt. In terms of human physiology, human life could not have originated without readily accessible sodium sources. In Europe, there was only one such space: the Carpathians, the cradle of European civilization.
Since the Neolithic era, every peasant household had a salt block that livestock licked after returning from the fields to meet their sodium needs. When shepherds embarked on transhumance with their flocks, they carried sufficient salt on their donkeys for themselves and their sheep until spring, when they returned to the Carpathians—the sole source of surface salt in the entire transhumant peri-Carpathian space.
Among all regions of the world, the Carpathian space boasts the greatest density of salt resources: over 300 high-quality salt massifs, easily exploitable, some even at the surface, forming hills of salt. Beyond these massifs, the Romanian space contains over 3,000 saline springs (as noted by Dr. I.P. Voitești in 1920) and numerous salt lakes, such as Amara, Razelm, and Lacul Sărat.
Salt and Life
Our ancestors’ dependence on salt, being physiological and natural, shaped population expansion. People spread from the Carpathians, always ensuring their access to salt. This led to the development of ancient salt roads radiating from the Carpathians in all directions: south, west, north, and east, like a compass rose. Along these roads, new settlements arose, increasingly distant from salt sources. One such road started at the Slănic salt mine, passed through Bucharest—where an artery still bears the name Drumul Sării („The Salt Road„)—crossed the Danube, and extended to the Bosphorus.
Transporting salt over great distances involved challenges, risks, and costs, making salt expensive. At times, it served as currency in certain regions. This economic value gave rise to expressions like a fi sărat („to be salty”), meaning „to be expensive.”
Similarly, the superstition that spilling salt leads to quarrels reflects its rarity and high value. Salt also played a sacred role, offered as gifts at altars to various deities. As people moved farther from natural salt sources, salt trade became increasingly vital. Venice’s early development relied on the salt trade, and it even waged wars to maintain its monopoly. Likewise, London and Hamburg grew in connection with salt commerce.
Mythical and Magical Properties
According to Dardu Plopșor, salt among the Getae was believed to have mythical-magical properties, and so-called „Getic fruit bowls” were actually ritual salt containers. These properties are undeniable. J.J. Ehrler notes: „The Romanian oath is sworn on water, bread, and salt because it is known that once a Romanian swears on these, they would endure torture or give their life rather than break their oath.”
In Romania’s Căluș ritual, an ancient custom linked to a zoomorphic deity (the Horse), the sacred circle includes offerings of food symbols native to the Carpathians: salt blocks, seeds of ancient plants like wheat, millet, barley, and rye—but never corn. Salt also features in spells and talismans for healing. Bread and salt symbolize sustenance and hospitality. Romanians traditionally welcome dear guests with bread and salt, a gesture of friendship and warmth.
The Role of Salt in Civilization
Salt played a central role in early human existence. It shaped population distribution, trade routes, and cultural practices. With Europe’s limited natural salt sources, the Carpathians became the „salt cellar” of Europe, shaping the region’s history for millennia.
Salt and Culture
From the symbolic rhombuses to salt’s central role in human physiology and culture, the Carpathian space provided not just sustenance but spiritual and artistic inspiration, forming a foundation for European civilization. Salt, as both a necessity and a symbol, continues to define the region’s identity and legacy. The Cuina Turcului site, located in the Iron Gates region of the Danube River (modern Romania), offers critical insights into the Mesolithic and early Neolithic periods, particularly regarding the transition from hunter-gatherer to farming societies in Southeastern Europe.
Cucuteni 🏺 6500 B.C.
Cuina Turcului 11000 B.C.
Çatalhöyük 🌾 Anatolia 9000 B.C.
Agriculture 🌾 settlement structures and cultural practices. Çatalhöyük (7100–5700 BC): a dense Neolithic settlement in central Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), showcasing early sedentary life and agriculture. Cucuteni-Trypillia (6500–3500 BCE): A Neolithic to Chalcolithic culture in Eastern Europe, known for its proto-urban settlements, advanced ceramics, and large-scale farming.
Cuina Turcului (~9500–7500 BC, with later activity 11000 B.C.): a Mesolithic to early Neolithic site at the Iron Gates of the Danube, representing the interaction of hunter-gatherer and early agricultural communities.
Agricultural Practices
Agricultural development across these sites reflects the gradual adoption of farming, shaped by local resources and cultural contexts. Çatalhöyük: agriculture was well-established, with the cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils. Domesticated sheep and goats were central to their economy, supplemented by hunting and gathering. Irrigation and storage facilities indicate sophisticated food management.
Cucuteni-Trypillia: agriculture was more expansive and diversified, including wheat, barley, millet, and flax. Evidence of plow use suggests advanced farming techniques. Domesticated cattle, pigs, and sheep supported larger populations in proto-cities. Their surplus farming allowed for trade and sustained larger communities than Çatalhöyük.
Cuina Turcului: as a transitional Mesolithic-Neolithic site, agriculture was not the primary subsistence strategy. The site shows early interactions with farming practices, likely introduced by nearby Neolithic communities. Archaeological evidence includes wild plant gathering, limited crop cultivation (emmer wheat), and fishing. The Danube’s rich aquatic resources, especially fish such as sturgeon, supplemented their diet significantly. This reflects a hybrid subsistence strategy during the early stages of farming adoption.
Settlement Structures
The organization of settlements reveals each culture’s adaptation to their environment and societal needs. Çatalhöyük: houses were tightly packed, with no streets. People accessed homes through rooftop openings. This unique layout maximized space and fostered a communal lifestyle. Homes also served as burial sites, connecting domestic and spiritual life. Cucuteni-Trypillia: settlements were proto-cities, organized in concentric circles or spirals. Houses were constructed with clay and wood, often larger and more complex than those at Çatalhöyük. These settlements reflect advanced urban planning and the ability to support thousands of inhabitants.
Cuina Turcului: as a seasonal Mesolithic site, Cuina Turcului was not a permanent settlement. Natural rock shelters and caves provided protection. The location near the Danube allowed access to abundant resources, especially fish. Temporary hearths and stone tools indicate a semi-nomadic lifestyle, with limited architectural development compared to Çatalhöyük or Cucuteni-Trypillia.
Art and Ritual Practices
Each site demonstrates distinct forms of artistic expression and spiritual practices, reflecting their cultural values. Çatalhöyük: art was vibrant, with wall murals of hunting scenes, geometric designs, and animal motifs. Figurines, particularly the Mother Goddess, emphasized fertility and ancestor worship.
Burial under house floors was a common ritual, possibly linked to household-based spiritual beliefs. Cucuteni-Trypillia: known for their intricate ceramics, Cucuteni-Trypillia artisans created vessels with red, black, and white swirling patterns. Female figurines symbolized fertility, while the ritual burning of houses may have symbolized renewal or purification. Their large settlements also suggest communal ritual spaces.
Cuina Turcului: artifacts include stone tools and possibly symbolic items like decorated bones, but there is little direct evidence of ritual or artistic expression on the level of Çatalhöyük or Cucuteni-Trypillia. Ritual activity may have revolved around hunting and fishing, as these were central to their subsistence.
Social Organization
Social structures reflect the complexity and size of each community. Çatalhöyük: the society was likely egalitarian, with similar-sized houses and shared resources. There is no evidence of centralized leadership or wealth disparity, suggesting a cooperative community structure. Cucuteni-Trypillia: the large settlements imply more organizational complexity, possibly with emerging social hierarchies. However, communal activities like shared farming and rituals suggest a collective ethos.
Cuina Turcului: social organization was minimal, reflecting small, mobile groups of hunter-gatherers. Cooperation would have been essential for fishing and seasonal subsistence activities, with kinship likely the primary social structure.
Agricultural and Technological Development
The three sites demonstrate different stages of agricultural and technological progress: Çatalhöyük represents the early consolidation of farming into a settled lifestyle, with irrigation and domesticated animals supporting a dense population. Cucuteni-Trypillia illustrates the transition to large-scale agriculture, with tools like the plow enabling surplus production and trade. Their settlements reflect a more advanced stage of farming and urbanization.
Cuina Turcului captures the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, where hunter-gatherers began experimenting with agriculture. The site’s reliance on fishing and wild resources reflects the slower adoption of farming in the Danube region compared to Anatolia and Eastern Europe. Cuina Turcului, Çatalhöyük and Cucuteni-Trypillia sites represent different stages in the evolution of human societies. Cuina Turcului highlights the gradual shift from foraging to farming in Southeastern Europe, while Çatalhöyük exemplifies an early agricultural settlement with a dense, communal structure.
In contrast, Cucuteni-Trypillia showcases the culmination of Neolithic developments, with large proto-cities supported by advanced agriculture and social organization. Together, these sites reveal the diverse ways in which early humans adapted to their environments and laid the foundation for complex societies.
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